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‹date/time›A2 PSYCHOLOGY
‹footer›LANA CROSBIE
SLIDE ‹#›
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Content-Type: text/xml; charset="utf-8"
A2 PSYC=
HOLOGY
LANA
CROSBIE
SLIDE
1
![](3D"slide0006_image001.gif")
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Animal Cognition=
Animal Cognition=
SIGNALLING SY=
STEMS
– FUNCTION & EVOLUTION
q The function of signals
q Signals are a basic form of non &#=
8211;
linguistic communication.
q To maximise survival chances and g=
ene
replication, organisms must often communicate.
q Communication involves the transfe=
r of
information and the manipulation of the behaviour of others.
q For communication to occur, inform=
ation
sent must produce some change in behaviour from the
participant.=
3;
q Signal communication is used for a
variety of vital survival purposes, such as:
q FEEDING – Foraging behaviour
(waggle dance of honeybees).
q ATTACK – The ritualised thre=
at
behaviour of growling and hackle raising shown by Wolves.
q DEFE=
NCE
– The alarm calls of birds, the defensive threat signals of vividly
coloured insect.
q SOCIAL ORGANISATION – Status
signals of posture shown by the dominant wolves, monkeys.
q REPRODUCTION – The mating fi=
tness
displays of competing male peacocks.
=
; &n=
bsp; =
; &n=
bsp; =
; &n=
bsp; =
; &n=
bsp; =
; &n=
bsp; =
;
CONT…
![](3D"slide0006_image002.gif")
A2 PSYC=
HOLOGY
LANA
CROSBIE
SLIDE 2
![](3D"slide0007_image003.gif")
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Animal Cognition=
Animal Cognition=
SIGNALLING SY=
STEMS
– FUNCTION & EVOLUTION
q The Evolution of Signals
q Visual communication displays often
evolve from behaviours shown in feeding, body
maintenance or
movement and become increasingly stereotyped and divorced from their
original
function as they
become used for communication.
q An example of this is, Mallard duck
courtship displays appear to have originally evolved from
feather preening
movements.
q The use of behaviour for signalling
often starts through approach – avoid conflicts between competing=
3;
males, or in
courtship. This is a stressful situation for particular male involved.
=
;
q Under these stressful conditions &=
#8211;
the Mallard duck, caught in a dilemma over whether to approach
=
or avoid female=
duck,
may have started preening himself as a displacement activity in his anxious
state of indeci=
sion.
This would have acted as a signal for the female to know his intentions (a=
nd
so
stay or approac=
h the
male if interested or remove herself if not).
![](3D"slide0007_image004.gif")
A2 PSYC=
HOLOGY
LANA
CROSBIE
SLIDE 3
![](3D"slide0008_image005.gif")
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Animal Cognition=
Animal Cognition=
SIGNALLING SYS=
TEMS
– MODES OF SIGNALLING
q TACTILE SIGNALS
ü Advantages – High certainty that the message will be
received due to intimacy of contact.
R Disadvantages
– Extremely limited in range. Fairly limited in the amount and
complexity of
information.=
3;
q Herring gull chicks peck at the be=
aks of
their parents to stimulate feeding behaviour.
q Bonobo chimpanzees signal concilia=
tion
through sexual touching behaviour.
![](3D"slide0008_image006.gif")
![](3D"slide0008_image008.gif")
A2 PSYC=
HOLOGY
LANA
CROSBIE
SLIDE 4
![](3D"slide0010_image009.gif")
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Animal Cognition=
Animal Cognition=
SIGNALLING SYS=
TEMS
– MODES OF SIGNALLING
q SOUND SIGNALS
![](3D"slide0010_image010.gif")
![](3D"slide0010_image012.gif")
![](3D"slide0010_image013.gif")
Sound =
waves,
however:
[1] la=
ck
directional control and easily
detected =
by
predators.
[2] are
costly in terms of energy to
produce them an=
d are
short lasting.
[3] may
distort over distance.
Allow
communication to occur:
[1] ov=
er
long distances
[2] pa=
st
physical obstacles
[3]
quickly
[4] in=
the
absence of light
[5] in=
a
detailed and complex way since
much
information can be sent in
sound
waves.
[6]
multi–directional – good for reaching
many rece=
ivers.
![](3D"slide0010_image014.gif")
q Humpback whales have a very long
transmission range.
q Dolphin clicks and whistles can tr=
ansmit
information through very murky water.
q Human language – most compli=
cated
communication of all.
A2 PSYC=
HOLOGY
LANA
CROSBIE
SLIDE 5
![](3D"slide0011_image015.gif")
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Animal Cognition=
Animal Cognition=
SIGNALLING SYS=
TEMS
– MODES OF SIGNALLING
q CHEMICAL SIGNALS
![](3D"slide0011_image016.gif")
Disadv=
antages:
[1] fai=
rly
slow in delivering information.
[2]
relatively limited in complexity of
informati=
on
sent.
[3]
difficult to control direction and duration.
Advant=
ages:
[1] lo=
ng
– ranging.
[2] la=
st
– lasting.
[3]
do not require the continued presence of the sender.
[4]
fairly discrete – some signals are only detectable by members of the same species.
[5]
transmits messages past physical objects and in the dark.
=
q Moth
pheromones can be detected & followed by the male.
<=
/div>
q Cats, dogs and rabbits mark their
territory with chemicals in their urine and faeces.
q Ants communicate primarily through
chemical signals.
![](3D"slide0011_image018.gif")
![](3D"slide0011_image019.gif")
![](3D"slide0011_image020.gif")
A2 PSYC=
HOLOGY
LANA
CROSBIE
SLIDE 6
![](3D"slide0012_image021.gif")
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Animal Cognition=
Animal Cognition=
SIGNALLING SYS=
TEMS
– MODES OF SIGNALLING
q VISUAL SIGNALS
![](3D"slide0012_image022.gif")
Disadv=
antages:
[1] li=
mited
range.
[2] bl=
ocked
by obstacles.
[3] re=
quires
light.
[4] vi=
sible
to predators.
Advant=
ages:
[1]
fast.
[2]
fairly large amounts of information can be sent.
[3]
directional.
[4]
can be long lasting and energy efficient, e.g. body markings.
![](3D"slide0012_image023.gif")
q Birds
use colourful mating displays.
q Squids send visual messages in the=
form
of colour patterns on their bodies.
q Wasps coloration sends a continuous
warning to predators.
![](3D"slide0012_image025.gif")
A2 PSYC=
HOLOGY
LANA
CROSBIE
SLIDE 7
![](3D"slide0014_image026.gif")
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Animal Cognition=
Animal Cognition=
Teaching human language to =
non
– human animals
q Washoe – Gard=
ner
& Gardner (1969) taught the female chimp Washoe American sign
Language =
(ASL).
q Lana &=
#8211;
Rumbaugh (1977) taught the chimp an artificial language of symbols
(Yerkish)
on a computer
keyboard.
q Akeakamai
– Herman et al (1984) taught the dolphin an artificial, visual langu=
age
of signs
based on gestures. &#=
13;
q Phoenix – Herman et al (1984) taught the dolphin an
artificial acoustic language based
on computer generated
whistling noises.
![](3D"slide0014_image027.gif")
A2 PSYC=
HOLOGY
LANA
CROSBIE
SLIDE 8
![](3D"slide0015_image028.gif")
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Animal Cognition=
Animal Cognition=
Natural animal languages &#=
8211;
The studies
q Cheney
and Seyfarth’s (1990) – provides
an example of language meaning in Vervet
monkeys.
q B=
right
(1984) – Recorded the sound=
s of a
captured dolphin.
q Janik (2000) – documented the richness of dolphin language.
<=
/span>
q C=
row
(2000) – has argued that la=
nguage
in humans appeared as a result of a single genetic
mutation in one
individual.
![](3D"slide0015_image029.gif")
A2 PSYC=
HOLOGY
LANA
CROSBIE
SLIDE 9
![](3D"slide0016_image030.gif")
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Animal Cognition=
Animal Cognition=
EXAM QUESTIONS
§ (a) Describe two re=
search
studies of animal language. <=
/span>(12 marks)
§ (b) Assess the value of these and =
/ or
other research studies of animal language. (12 marks)
§ Describe and evaluate the use of t=
wo
different signalling systems in non – human animals. =
; &n=
bsp; =
;
(24 marks)
![](3D"slide0016_image031.gif")
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